The Enchiridion
Chapter 1 · 1/38
The Enchiridion
Chapter 1
1The Library of Liberal Arts OSKAR PIEST, _General Editor_ [NUMBER EIGHT] EPICTETUS The Enchiridion The Enchiridion By EPICTETUS Translated by THOMAS W. 2HIGGINSON With an Introduction by ALBERT SALOMON _Professor of Sociology New School for Social Research_ THE LIBERAL ARTS PRESS NEW YORK COPYRIGHT, 1948 THE LIBERAL ARTS PRESS, INC. 3First Edition, _October, 1948_ Reprinted _December, 1950_; _August, 1954_ Second Edition, _November, 1955_ Published at 153 West 72nd Street, New York 23, N. 4Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS Note on the Text Introduction Selected Bibliography The Enchiridion NOTE ON THE TEXT The text of the second edition is a reprint of the first edition except for a few minor corrections in style, punctuation, and spelling, which have been revised to conform to current American usage. 5The editorial staff of the publishers has added a few explanatory notes which are set in brackets and marked “Ed.” 6O.P. 7INTRODUCTION The little book by Epictetus called _Enchiridion_ or “manual” has played a disproportionately large role in the rise of modern attitudes and modern philosophy. 8As soon as it had been translated into the vernacular languages, it became a bestseller among independent intellectuals, among anti-Christian thinkers, and among philosophers of a subjective cast. 9Montaigne had a copy of the _Enchiridion_ among his books. 10Pascal violently rejected the megalomaniac pride of the Stoic philosopher. 11Frederick the Great carried the book with him on all campaigns. 12It was a source of inspiration and encouragement to Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, in the serious illness which ended only in his death; many pages of his diaries contain passages copied from the _Enchiridion_. 13It has been studied and widely quoted by Scottish philosophers like Francis Hutcheson, Adam Smith, and Adam Ferguson who valued Stoic moral philosophy for its reconciliation of social dependency and personal independence. 14That there was a rebirth of Stoicism in the centuries of rebirth which marked the emergence of the modern age was not mere chance. 15Philosophical, moral, and social conditions of the time united to cause it. 16Roman Stoicism had been developed in times of despotism as a philosophy of lonely and courageous souls who had recognized the redeeming power of philosophical reason in all the moral and social purposes of life. 17Philosophy as a way of life makes men free. 18It is the last ditch stand of liberty in a world of servitude. 19Many elements in the new age led to thought which had structural affinity with Roman Stoicism. 20Modern times had created the independent thinker, the free intellectual in a secular civilization. 21Modern times had destroyed medieval liberties and had established the new despotism of the absolute state supported by ecclesiastical authority. 22Modern philosophies continued the basic trend in Stoicism in making the subjective consciousness the foundation of philosophy. 23The Stoic emphasis on moral problems was also appealing in an era of rapid transition when all the values which had previously been taken for granted were questioned and reconsidered. 24While it is interesting to observe how varied were the effects produced by this small volume, this epitome of the Stoic system of moral philosophy, these effects seem still more remarkable when we consider that it was not intended to be a philosophical treatise on Stoicism for students. 25It was, rather, to be a guide for the advanced student of Stoicism to show him the best roads toward the goal of becoming a true philosopher. 26Thus Epictetus and his _Enchiridion_ have a unique position in Roman Stoicism. 27Seneca and Marcus Aurelius had selected Stoic philosophy as the most adequate system for expressing their existential problems of independence, solitude, and history. 28In this enterprise, Seneca made tremendous strides toward the insights of social psychology as a by-product of his consciousness of decadence (in this he was close to Nietzsche), but he was not primarily concerned with the unity of the Stoic system. 29Marcus Aurelius changed the philosophical doctrine into the regimen of the lonesome ruler. 30In contrast to both, Epictetus was teaching Stoic philosophy as a doctrine and as a way of life. 31The _Enchiridion_ is a summary of theoretical and applied Stoicism. 32Epictetus was the son of a woman slave, born between 50 and 60 A.D. at Hieropolis in Phrygia. 33We do not know how he came to Rome. 34He was there as slave to one of Nero’s distinguished freedmen who served as the Emperor’s secretary. 35While still in service, Epictetus took courses with Musonius Rufus, the fashionable Stoic philosopher, who was impressed by the sincere and dynamic personality of the young slave and trained him to be a Stoic philosopher. 36Epictetus became a free man and began teaching philosophy on street corners, in the market, but he was not successful. 37During the rule of Domitian, Epictetus with many other philosophers was exiled from Rome, probably between 89 and 92 A.D. 38He went to Nicopolis, across Actium in Epirus, where he conducted his own school. 39He was so well regarded and highly esteemed that he established the reputation of the place as the town of Epictetus’ school. 40Students came from Athens and Rome to attend his classes. 41Private citizens came to ask his advice and guidance. 42Some of his students returned to their homes to enter the traditional careers to which they were socially obligated. 43Others assumed the philosophic way of life in order to escape into the sphere of Stoic freedom. 44Among the students was a young Roman, Flavius Arrian, who took courses at Nicopolis when Epictetus was already old. 45Flavius, who was born in 108 A.D., was one of the intimates of Hadrian, who made him consul in 130 A.D. 46He probably studied with Epictetus between the years 123 and 126 A.D. 47The informal philosophical talks which Epictetus had with his students fascinated him. 48Needless to say there were also systematic courses in the fields of philosophy. 49But it was the informal discourses which convinced Arrian that he had finally discovered a Stoic Socrates or a Stoic Diogenes, who was not merely teaching a doctrine, but also living the truth. 50Arrian recorded many of the discourses and informal conversations of Epictetus with his intimate students. 51He took them down in shorthand in order not to lose the ineffable liveliness, grace, and wit of the beloved teacher. 52Arrian retired into private life after the death of Hadrian in 138 A.D. and dedicated himself to his literary work. 53He published his notes on Epictetus’ teaching under the title: _Discourses in Four Books_. 54The _Enchiridion_, which was also arranged by Arrian, is a brief summary of the basic ideas of Stoic philosophy and an introduction to the techniques required to transform Stoic philosophy into a way of life. 55Thus we do not have any original writings of Epictetus. 56Like G. 57Mead in recent times, he was completely dedicated to the human and intellectual problems of his students. 58He left it for them to preserve what they considered to be the lasting message of the teacher. 59In contrast to Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus had no subjective approach to the Stoic doctrines. 60Moral philosophy was the center of his teaching, and epistemology was only instrumental. 61It is even permissible to say that he took physics or cosmology too lightly. 62If this is granted, we must admit that he is completely absorbed by the fundamentals of Stoic thought as presented in the _Enchiridion_. 63Epictetus’ personality is totally integrated in the act of reasoning which establishes conformity with nature. 64A remarkable difference between the _Discourses_ and the _Enchiridion_ should be mentioned. 65The _Discourses_ are a living image of the teacher in action; they present the process of philosophizing, not the finished product. 66They show the enthusiastic and sober, the realistic and pathetic moralist in constantly changing perspectives determined by the changing students with their various concerns, problems, and questions; his teachings, his formulations, have direct reference to the various life situations in which the students should apply and practice the master’s Stoic teaching. 67No human situation is omitted; as a guide to conduct, philosophy has relevance for all. 68Whether the students have to attend a dinner party, whether they are among competitors in a stadium or in a swimming pool, whether they have to present themselves at court or in an office, whether they are in the company of their mothers and sisters or of girl friends, in all human situations the philosopher knows the correct advice for the philosophical apprentice. 69Thus, in the _Discourses_, Arrian presents the unique individuality of the philosopher and of his applied moral method in living contact with various students in concrete situations. 70Epictetus as teacher anticipates very modern educational methods in his regard for the structure of situations and the changing perspectives in human relationships. 71Nothing like this is revealed in the _Enchiridion_. 72Gone is the Stoic philosopher as living spirit. 73What remains is the living spirit of Stoicism. 74The _Enchiridion_ is a manual for the combat officer. 75This analogy should be taken seriously. 76The Roman Stoics coined the formula: _Vivere militare! 77_ (Life is being a soldier.) 78The student of philosophy is a private, the advancing Stoic is a non-commissioned officer, and the philosopher is the combat officer. 79For this reason all Roman Stoics apply metaphors and images derived from military life. 80Apprentice students of Stoicism are described as messengers, as scouts of God, as representatives of divine nature. 81The advancing student who is close to the goal of being a philosopher has the rank of an officer. 82He is already able to establish inner freedom and independence. 83He understands the basic Stoic truth of subjective consciousness, which is to distinguish what is in our power from what is not in our power. 84Not in our power are all the elements which constitute our environment, such as wealth, health, reputation, social prestige, power, the lives of those we love, and death. 85In our power are our thinking, our intentions, our desires, our decisions. 86These make it possible for us to control ourselves and to make of ourselves elements and parts of the universe of nature. 87This knowledge of ourselves makes us free in a world of dependencies. 88This superiority of our powers enables us to live in conformity with nature. 89The rational philosophy of control of Self and of adjustment to the Whole implies an asceticism of the emotional and the sensitive life. 90The philosopher must examine and control his passions, his love, his tenderness at all times in order always to be ready for the inevitable moment of farewell. 91The Stoics practiced a Jesuitism _avant la lettre_. 92They were able to live in the world as if they did not live in it. 93To the Stoic, life is a military camp, a play on the stage, a banquet to which we are invited. 94The _Enchiridion_ briefly indicated the techniques which the philosopher should apply in acting well the diverse roles which God might assign to those whom he loves, the Stoic philosophers. 95From the rules of social conduct to the recommendations of sexual asceticism before marriage, and the method of true thinking, the advanced Stoic will find all principles of perfection and all precepts for realizing philosophical principles in his conduct in this tiny volume. 96Thus the _Enchiridion_ was liberating for all intellectuals who learned from it that there are philosophical ways of self-redemption. 97From its time, the secular thinker could feel jubilant because he was not in need of a divine grace. 98Epictetus had taught him that philosophical reason could make him free and that he was capable of redeeming himself by sound reasoning. 99In the Stoic distinctions of personality and world, of I and mine, of subjective consciousness and the world of objects, of freedom and dependence, we find implicit the basic elements of modern philosophies of rationalism and of objective idealism or pantheism. 100For this reason there is a continuous renascence of Stoicism from Descartes, Grotius, and Bishop Butler, to Montesquieu, Adam Smith, and Kant. 101In this long development in modern times, the tiny _Enchiridion_ of Epictetus played a remarkable part. 102The translations of Epictetus and of all other Stoics had the widest effect on philosophers, theologians, and lay thinkers. 103They were studied by the clergy of the various Christian denominations, by the scientists who were striving for a natural religion, and by the independent philosophers who were eager to separate philosophy from religion. 104There were many outstanding bishops in the Catholic and Anglican Churches who were eager to transform the traditions of Roman Stoicism into Christian Stoicism. 105Among the Calvinistic denominations were many thinkers who were in sympathy with Stoic moral principles because of their praise of the austerity of life and of the control of passions. 106Likewise the adherents of natural religion were propagating Stoicism as the ideal pattern of universally valid and intelligible religion. 107Renascent Stoicism had three functions in the rise of the modern world. 108First, it reconciled Christian traditions to modern rationalistic philosophies; secondly, it established an ideal pattern of natural religion; and, thirdly, it opened the way for the autonomy of morals. 109ALBERT SALOMON The New School for Social Research _July, 1948_ SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY _Epictetus: Life and Work_ Arnim, Hans V., “Epictetos” in Pauli-Wissowa (ed), _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, VI, col. 110126-131. 111Arnold, E. 112V., “Epictetus” in Hastings, _Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_, 1912. 113Vol. 114V, pp. 115323, 324. 116Bonhoeffer, A., _Epiktet und die Stoa_. 117Stuttgart, 1890. ——, _Ethik des Stoikers Epiktet_. 118Stuttgart, 1894. ——, _Epiktet und das Neue Testament_. 119Giessen, 1911. 120Bruns, Ivo, _De schola Epicteti_. 121Kiel, 1897. 122Bultmann, Rudolf, “Das religiöse Moment in der ethischen Unterweisung des Epiktets und das Neue Testament,” _Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde des Urchristentums_, Vol. 123XIII, 1912; pp. 12497-110; 177-191. 125Colardeau, Th., _Etude sur Epictète_. 126Paris, 1903. 127Hartmann, K., “Arrian und Epiktet,” _Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum_, Vol. 128XV, 1905. 129Jagu, Amand, _Epictète et Platon_. 130Paris, 1944. 131Lagrange, M. 132J., “La philosophie religieuse d’Epictète et le Christianisme,” _Revue Biblique_, Vol. 133IX, 1912; pp. 1345-21, 192-212. 135Oldfather, W. 136A., “Introduction” to _Epictetus_, “Loeb Classics,” Vol. 137Souilhé, J., “Introduction” to _Entretiens_. 138Paris, 1943. 139Weber, Louis, “La morale d’Epictète et les besoins présents de l’enseignment moral,” _Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale_, 1905, pp. 830-858; 1906, pp. 342-360; 1907, pp. 327-347; 1909, pp. 140203-326. 141_Main Works on Stoicism and Related Problems_ Arnold, E. 142V., _Roman Stoicism_. 143Cambridge, E., 1911. 144Bevan, E., _Stoics and Sceptics_. 145Oxford, 1913. 146Brochard, V., _Etudes de philosophie ancienne et de philosophie moderne_, Paris, 1912. 147Hicks, R. 148D., _Stoic and Epicurean_. 149New York, 1910. 150Martha, C., _Les moralistes sur l’Empire Romain_. 151Paris, 1886. 152Murray, Gilbert, _Stoic, Christian, Humanist_. 153London, 1940. 154Robin, L., _La morale antique_. 155Paris, 1938, pp. 15657, 130, 152, 167. 157Wendland, Paul, _Philo und die cynisch-stoische Diatribe_. 158Berlin, 1895. ——, _Die hellenistische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zum Judentum und Christentum_. 159Tübingen, 1912. 160Zanta, L., _La renaissance du Stoicisme au XVIième siècle_. 161Paris, 1914. 162Zeller, E., _The Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics_. 163London, 1892. 164_Influence of Stoicism_ Busson, Henry, _La pensée religieuse Française de Charron à Pascal_. 165Paris, 1933. 166Chap. 167VIII: Stoiciens et Epicuriens, pp. 168379-429. 169Dilthey, Wilhelm, _Gesammelte Werke_, Vol. 170II. 171“Einfluss der Stoa auf die Ausbildung des natürlichen Systems der Geisteswissenschaften,” pp. 172153-162; “Anthropologie, Stoa und natürliches System im XVII. 173Jahrhundert,” pp. 174439-457. 175Groethuysen, Bernard, _Philosophische Anthropologie_. 176München, 1928. 177(Chap. 178“Die römisch-griechische Lebensphilosophie.”) 179Rand, B., _The Life, Letters, etc. of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury_. 180London, 1900. 181Saunders, Jason L., _Justus Lipsius. 182The Philosophy of Renaissance Stoicism_. 183New York, 1955. 184Wenley, R. 185M., _Stoicism and Its Influence_. 186New York, 1927. 187THE ENCHIRIDION
1 / 38